CBSE Class 12 Political Science Chapter 8: Environment and Natural Resources NCERT Solutions

Solution: The correct option is (c). The primary reason for the increasing global concern regarding the environment is the pervasive nature of environmental degradation caused by human activities. This degradation has reached a dangerous level, impacting ecosystems and human well-being worldwide, necessitating urgent attention and action from all nations.

Solution: Let's evaluate each statement:

(a) Correct. The Earth Summit (Rio Summit) in 1992 was a large international gathering with participation from 170 countries, numerous NGOs, and many multinational corporations.

(b) Wrong. While the UN played a crucial role in organizing and supporting the summit, the statement implies the UN itself was the sole 'aegis'. The summit was held under the auspices of the United Nations, but the wording might be interpreted narrowly. More accurately, it was convened by the UN General Assembly.

(c) Correct. The Rio Summit was a landmark event where global environmental issues were significantly addressed and consolidated at the highest political level, leading to international agreements and commitments.

(d) Wrong. While it was a summit meeting, the statement is too general. The key aspect is its focus on environmental and developmental issues, not just the fact that it was a meeting.

Solution: Statements (a), (b), and (c) are true about Global Commons.

(a) This statement correctly identifies the key areas considered as Global Commons: the Earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor, and outer space. These are resources shared by all humanity.

(b) This statement is also true. Global Commons lie outside the political and legal control of any single nation, meaning no single country has sovereign rights over them.

(c) This statement accurately reflects that the management of Global Commons often highlights the differences in perspectives and priorities between developed (North) and developing (South) countries, particularly regarding resource use and environmental protection.

Statement (d) is generally considered false. While both North and South have concerns, the nature and priority of these concerns differ. Developing countries (South) may be more concerned about equitable access and the impact of resource exploitation on their development, while developed countries (North) might focus more on conservation and pollution control, though both are interconnected.

Solution: The Rio Summit, officially known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in 1992, had several significant outcomes:

1. Conventions and Agreements: It produced important international agreements, including conventions dealing with climate change (UNFCCC) and biodiversity (CBD). It also produced a statement of principles for the sustainable management of forests.
2. Agenda 21: A comprehensive action plan for sustainable development in the 21st century was recommended. Agenda 21 aimed to integrate economic growth with ecological responsibility and social equity.
3. Sustainable Development Concept: The summit strongly promoted the concept of sustainable development, emphasizing the need to balance economic progress with environmental protection for present and future generations.
4. Addressing Contentious Issues: It brought issues like the management of Global Commons, environmental justice, and the North-South divide in environmental politics to the forefront of global discussions.

Solution: Global Commons refer to those areas or regions that lie outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any single state and are governed by the international community. Key examples include the Earth's atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor, and outer space.

Exploitation and Pollution of Global Commons:

1. Vague Scientific Evidence and Lack of Consensus: Sometimes, there is insufficient or contested scientific evidence regarding environmental issues, leading to a lack of consensus among nations on the extent of the problem and the necessary actions, which can hinder effective management and allow exploitation.
2. North-South Inequalities and Competition: Differences in economic development and priorities between the Global North (developed countries) and the Global South (developing countries) lead to competition for resources. Developed nations may exploit resources for industrial growth, while developing nations may seek to utilize them for economic upliftment, often leading to unsustainable practices and pollution.
3. Technological and Industrial Development: Advances in technology and industrialization, while beneficial in many ways, have also led to increased exploitation and pollution of Global Commons. For instance, industrial emissions pollute the atmosphere, and deep-sea activities can impact ocean floor ecosystems.
4. Lack of Effective Governance: The absence of robust, universally enforced international regulations and governance mechanisms for these shared resources makes them vulnerable to overuse and degradation.

Solution: Meaning of 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities' (CBDR):

The principle of 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities' acknowledges that all states share a common responsibility to conserve, protect, and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. However, it also recognizes that states have contributed differently to global environmental degradation and possess varying capacities (technological, financial) to address these issues. Therefore, while the goal is common, the responsibilities and the means to achieve it are differentiated, particularly between developed and developing countries.

Developed countries, having historically contributed more to environmental problems and possessing greater resources, are expected to take the lead in addressing them and provide support to developing countries.

Implementation of the Idea:

The idea of CBDR can be implemented through various international mechanisms and agreements:

1. International Conventions and Summits: Events like the Rio Summit (1992) were crucial. They produced conventions (e.g., UNFCCC, CBD) that often embed the principle of CBDR, setting different targets or obligations for different groups of countries.
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): This convention explicitly emphasizes that parties should protect the climate system based on common but differentiated responsibilities, acknowledging the historical emissions from industrialized nations.
3. Kyoto Protocol: This protocol, adopted under the UNFCCC, set legally binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, reflecting their differentiated responsibilities.
4. Financial and Technological Transfer: Developed countries can implement CBDR by providing financial assistance and transferring environmentally sound technologies to developing countries to help them pursue sustainable development pathways and meet environmental goals.

Solution: Issues related to global environmental protection have become a priority concern for states since the 1990s due to several interconnected factors:

1. Increased Awareness of Environmental Degradation: By the late 20th century, the impacts of human activities on the environment became increasingly evident and widespread. Issues like ozone depletion, climate change, deforestation, and biodiversity loss could no longer be ignored as localized problems; they were recognized as global threats.
2. Landmark International Conferences: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 (the Rio Summit), was a pivotal event. It brought together world leaders, scientists, and activists to discuss environmental challenges and development. The conference produced key documents like Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Framework Convention on Climate Change, firmly placing environmental issues on the international political agenda.
3. Recognition of Interdependence: States realized that environmental problems transcend national borders. Pollution in one country can affect others, and global issues like climate change require collective action. This interdependence fostered a sense of shared responsibility.
4. Promoting Sustainable Development: The Rio Summit popularized the concept of sustainable development, which seeks to reconcile economic growth with environmental protection. This approach offered a framework for addressing development needs without causing irreversible environmental damage, making it a priority for both developed and developing nations.
5. International Agreements and Protocols: Following the Rio Summit, further international efforts, such as the Kyoto Protocol (aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions), solidified the commitment to global environmental protection and established mechanisms for cooperation.

In essence, the growing scientific evidence, the visibility of environmental crises, and the realization that global cooperation is essential for survival and sustainable progress have elevated environmental protection to a top priority for states since the 1990s.