CBSE Class 12 History Chapter 12: Colonial Cities - Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture NCERT Solutions

A careful study of the data collected through the census provides significant information for understanding the trends of urbanisation during the colonial period. Its usefulness can be examined as follows:

1. Sluggish Urbanisation: The process of urbanisation in India was relatively slow after 1800.
2. Low Urban Population Proportion: Throughout the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century, the proportion of the urban population in India remained very low and largely stagnant.
3. Urban Population Growth: Between 1900 and 1940, the urban population saw an increase of about 13%. Interestingly, during the same period, the overall population of the country increased by approximately 10%, indicating a slightly faster growth rate in urban areas relative to the total population increase.
4. Demographic Details: The census data collected helps in enumerating people based on various demographic factors such as age, sex, caste, religion, and occupation, providing a detailed picture of the urban populace.

The terms "White" and "Black" towns emerged during the colonial era to denote the racial and social segregation prevalent in urban settlements established by the British.

• "White" Towns: These were areas primarily inhabited by the European colonizers, who were often referred to as 'white' due to their skin colour. These towns were designed to reflect their perceived superiority and included features like wide roads, barracks, churches, parade grounds, large bungalows, and gardens, symbolizing a more organized and 'civilized' settled city life. The British ensured high standards of sanitation, hygiene, and public health in these areas, including underground piped water supply and efficient sewerage and drainage systems, to prevent diseases.
• "Black" Towns: These were the areas where the indigenous Indian population lived. They were often characterized by a lack of organization, perceived chaos, filth, and disease. Epidemics like cholera and plague frequently broke out in these densely populated areas. The British often associated these towns with anarchy and disease, contrasting them with the perceived order and cleanliness of the 'White' areas.

The distinction was not merely about skin colour but also about power, privilege, and the imposition of colonial social hierarchies onto the urban landscape.

Prominent Indian merchants and traders played a significant role in the economic and social fabric of colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. They established themselves through several strategies:

• Agents and Middlemen: Many served as crucial agents or middlemen for the British, facilitating trade and commerce between the colonial rulers and the local economy.
• Traditional Housing in Black Towns: They typically resided in traditionally built courtyard houses located within the 'Black Towns', the areas designated for the Indian population.
• Land Investment: These merchants often controlled large tracts of land within these cities and made substantial investments, anticipating future growth and development.
• Demonstrating Prestige: To impress their British masters and assert their social standing and prestige within the colonial hierarchy, they engaged in practices like hosting lavish parties during festival seasons and constructing temples. These actions showcased their wealth and influence in society.

Concerns related to defence and public health significantly influenced the planning and layout of Calcutta during the colonial period.

Defence Concerns:

• Following the sacking of a British trading fort by Sirajudaula in 1756, the British constructed a new, more robust fort, Fort William, after defeating him at the Battle of Plassey.
• To ensure the fort's security, a large open space, known as the Maidan (or garermath), was deliberately left around it. This open space prevented any obstructions to a direct line of fire from the fort against potential advancing enemy armies.
• This vast open space around Fort William became a significant town planning measure, shaping the early layout of Calcutta. British officials began building their residences along the periphery of the Maidan, establishing a pattern for the settlement.

Health Concerns:

• Lord Wellesley, concerned about the overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in the cities, issued an administrative order in 1803 advocating for town planning to improve health.
• He believed that open spaces would make the city healthier. Consequently, various committees were formed to implement these ideas.
• As a result of these health-driven planning initiatives, many bazaars, ghats, burial grounds, and tanneries were cleared or relocated from central areas.
• After Wellesley's departure, the Lottery Committee continued the work of town planning in Calcutta, further addressing issues of sanitation and public health.

Bombay (now Mumbai) exhibits a variety of colonial architectural styles, reflecting both the imposition of European designs and the adaptation of local needs and aesthetics.

• The Colonial Bungalow: Initially, buildings were often at odds with traditional Indian structures. However, the bungalow, widely used by government officers in Bombay, became a prominent colonial style. It was typically set on extensive grounds, ensuring privacy. The traditional pitched roof and surrounding veranda were incorporated to keep the interiors cool during the hot Indian summers. These bungalows, with their characteristic features, can still be found in the city.
• Adaptation of Indian Styles: While the British introduced European architectural forms, they also adapted some Indian styles to suit their requirements. Conversely, Indians gradually became accustomed to European architecture and began to adopt and integrate it into their own building practices.
• The Chawl: Due to the city's limited space and increasing population density, a unique type of building emerged in Bombay known as the 'chawl'. These were multi-storied residential buildings with numerous small rooms, designed to accommodate a large number of people in a compact urban setting, becoming a distinctive feature of Bombay's architecture.
• Traditional Decorative Elements: Alongside these adaptations, traditional styles of decoration and building techniques also persisted and were integrated into the evolving urban landscape.

The eighteenth century witnessed significant transformations in Indian urban centres, driven by political shifts and the increasing presence of European trading companies.

1. Emergence of Regional Powers: The disintegration of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb's death led to the rise of powerful regional kingdoms. The capital cities of these regional powers, such as Lucknow, Poona, Nagpur, and Murshidabad (implied by 'Barda' likely a typo for a major regional centre), gained prominence as administrative and cultural hubs. Many nobles and officials also established new urban settlements, often referred to as 'qasbah' (a small town) or 'ganj' (a market town), taking advantage of the shifting political landscape.
2. Growth of Trading Centres: European trading companies, establishing bases in India from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onwards, played a crucial role. For instance, the Portuguese established a base in Panaji (Goa) by 1570, and the British settled in Madras (Chennai) in 1639. As commercial activities expanded, towns that served as trading centres began to grow significantly.
3. Decline of Older Centres: From the mid-eighteenth century onwards, some older trading centres that had flourished in the seventeenth century, like Surat and Dhaka, began to decline. This was primarily because trade routes and economic activities shifted to other locations, often favouring the newly established colonial ports or centres linked to regional powers.