CBSE Class 12 History NCERT Solutions: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation

The people of the Harappan Civilisation had access to a diverse range of food items, sourced from both plant cultivation and animal husbandry, as well as hunting and fishing.

The food items available included:

• Plant Products: Grains such as wheat, maize, millet, and rice, along with various pulses.
• Animal Products: Flesh from domesticated animals and fish caught from rivers and the sea.

These food items were provided by different groups within the Harappan society:

• Agricultural Groups: These communities were responsible for cultivating grains like wheat, maize, millet, pulses, and rice.
• Food Gatherers and Hunter Groups: These groups likely supplemented the diet by collecting wild plant products and hunting animals, as well as fishing.

Archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society by examining various aspects of material culture, particularly burials and artifacts. The differences they notice suggest a stratified society.

Methods and observations include:

• Study of Burials: While most Harappans were buried in pits, variations in the preparation of these pits indicate differences. For instance, some burial pits were lined with bricks, suggesting a higher status for those interred.
• Grave Goods: The presence and quantity of objects found alongside the deceased provide significant clues. Graves containing pottery and ornaments, such as jewelry found with both men and women, indicate economic disparities.
• Classification of Artifacts: Archaeologists classify artifacts into two main categories:
  • Utilitarian: These are objects of daily use made from ordinary materials like clay or stone. Examples include querns, pottery, flesh-rubbers, and needles. These items are generally found distributed widely across settlements.
  • Luxurious: These are rare objects made from precious, non-local materials using advanced and complicated technology. Examples include small pots made of faience, which were considered precious and difficult to produce. The existence of such luxury goods points to the presence of an elite class with wealth and access to specialized resources and craftsmanship.

These findings collectively suggest that the Harappan society was not egalitarian and exhibited clear social and economic variations.

Yes, the sophisticated drainage system in Harappan cities strongly indicates advanced town planning. Several reasons support this agreement:

• Systematic Layout: The execution of the drainage system required meticulous planning. It appears that drains were laid out first, and then houses were constructed along these streets, ensuring that domestic wastewater could flow into the street drains.
• Grid Pattern: The plans of the lower town reveal that roads and streets were laid out in an approximate grid pattern, intersecting each other at right angles. This organized layout is a hallmark of planned urban development.
• Integrated Planning: The entire settlement seems to have been planned from the beginning. Cities were often built on platforms within a fixed area, suggesting deliberate urban design.
• Standardized Materials: The consistent use of standardized bricks, whether sundried or baked, across different Harappan settlements further points to a unified planning and construction approach. The bricks adhered to a standard ratio: the length was four times the height, and the breadth was twice the height.

The coordination evident in the placement of houses relative to drains and the overall street layout demonstrates a high level of urban planning and civic management.

Bead-making was a significant craft in the Harappan Civilisation, particularly flourishing in centers like Chanhudaro and Lothal. A variety of materials were used, and intricate processes were employed to create beads of diverse shapes and sizes.

Materials Used for Making Beads:

• Stones: Beautiful red-colored carnelian, jasper, crystal, and quartz.
• Steatite: A soft stone often used for beads.
• Metals: Copper and bronze were also utilized.
• Precious Metals: Gold was used for ornamentation.
• Other Materials: Shell, faience (a glazed ceramic material), and terracotta (burnt clay) were also common.

Process of Making Carnelian Beads:

The process of making beads varied depending on the material. For carnelian beads, the process involved several stages:

1. Shaping: Nodules of carnelian were first chipped to obtain rough shapes. These rough forms were then flaked into the desired final shape.
2. Coloring: The yellowish raw material of carnelian was subjected to firing (heating at high temperatures). This process transformed the material, yielding the characteristic red color.
3. Finishing: After coloring, the beads underwent grinding and polishing to achieve a smooth surface.
4. Drilling: Finally, a hole was drilled through the bead, typically using specialized tools. Centers like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira were renowned for their expertise in drilling beads, especially those made from harder stones.

Beads were made in a variety of shapes, though not always strictly geometrical, reflecting the skill and techniques available to Harappan artisans.

Observing the figure (assuming it depicts a Harappan burial), we can infer the following details about the placement of the body and associated artifacts:

• Body Placement: The body has been placed in a pit. Typically, in Harappan burials, bodies were laid in a North-South direction.
• Objects Placed Near the Body: Many graves at Harappan sites contain pottery, which was often placed near the deceased. This pottery could include jars or other vessels, possibly intended for use in the afterlife.
• Artifacts on the Body: Yes, it is common to find artifacts on the body itself. In the context of Harappan burials, jewelry such as bangles has been found on the skeletons of both men and women.
• Indication of Sex: The presence of certain artifacts, particularly jewelry like bangles, can often indicate the sex of the skeleton. While men and women could both wear ornaments, specific types of jewelry or their profusion might be associated more strongly with one sex or the other, or with particular social statuses. For example, bangles are frequently found on the wrists of female skeletons, suggesting they were a common form of adornment for women.

These observations highlight the burial customs and the material culture associated with individuals in the Harappan Civilisation, providing insights into their beliefs and social practices.