CBSE Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1: What is Psychology? NCERT Solutions

Solution: Behaviour refers to any response or action of an organism that can be observed and measured. It encompasses everything an individual does that can be detected in some way. Behaviour can be broadly categorized into two types: overt and covert.

Overt behaviour includes actions that are directly visible and observable by others. Examples include speaking, running, writing, or any physical activity.

Covert behaviour refers to internal mental processes and actions that cannot be directly observed by others. These are private experiences. Examples include thinking, feeling emotions like happiness or sadness, remembering past events, or problem-solving. While these cannot be seen directly, their effects or products can often be observed or inferred.

For instance, a person running to catch a train is an example of overt behaviour. Conversely, the complex mental processes involved in memory recall or decision-making are examples of covert behaviour.

Solution: Scientific psychology differs significantly from popular notions or common-sense beliefs about human behaviour in its methodology and reliability.

Common Sense vs. Scientific Approach:

• Common Sense: Popular notions are often based on hindsight, personal experiences, and intuition. They tend to explain behaviour after it has occurred, making them prone to biases and inconsistencies. For example, common sense might suggest giving children only easy tasks to boost their confidence.
• Scientific Psychology: This discipline employs systematic observation, empirical research, and experimentation to understand behaviour. It aims to identify patterns, make predictions about future behaviour, and test hypotheses rigorously. Scientific findings are objective, verifiable, and replicable.

Example: Carol Dweck's study on children's responses to failure illustrates this difference. Common sense might suggest shielding children from failure. However, Dweck found that children who always succeeded due to easy tasks coped poorly with difficulty. In contrast, those who experienced and learned from failures, and were encouraged to put in more effort, developed greater resilience. This empirical finding, based on scientific study, provides a more reliable basis for understanding and guiding children's development than simple common-sense advice.

Therefore, scientific psychology seeks objective evidence and testable explanations, whereas popular notions often rely on subjective interpretations and anecdotal evidence.

Solution: Psychology, as a formal scientific discipline, has a relatively short history but its roots trace back to ancient philosophy. Its evolution can be understood through the emergence of several major schools of thought:

1. Structuralism: Proposed by Wilhelm Wundt in the late 19th century, this was the first major school of psychology. Structuralists aimed to understand the structure of the human mind by breaking down conscious experience into its basic components, such as sensations and feelings. They primarily used the method of introspection, where individuals reported their own conscious experiences.

2. Functionalism: Developed by William James and others in the United States, Functionalism emerged as a reaction to Structuralism. It focused on the purpose or function of consciousness and behaviour in helping individuals adapt to their environment. Functionalists were interested in how the mind works and how mental processes aid survival, rather than just its structure. They also utilized introspection but were more open to other methods.

3. Behaviourism: Founded by John B. Watson, Behaviourism proposed that psychology should be the science of observable behaviour only. Behaviourists argued that mental processes are not scientifically measurable and focused on the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioural responses (S-R psychology). They were heavily influenced by Pavlov's work on classical conditioning and emphasized learning.

4. Gestalt Psychology: Emerging in Germany with figures like Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler, Gestalt psychology opposed the Structuralist approach of breaking down experience. It emphasized that our perception of the world is holistic and organized; the whole is different from (and often more than) the sum of its parts. They studied principles of perceptual organization.

5. Psychoanalysis: Developed by Sigmund Freud, this approach focused on the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts in shaping human behaviour and personality. Freud proposed that many psychological disorders stem from unresolved unconscious conflicts and developed psychoanalysis as a therapeutic technique.

6. Humanism: Advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, Humanistic psychology emerged in the mid-20th century as a 'third force' reacting against Behaviourism and Psychoanalysis. It emphasizes the unique potential of individuals, free will, self-actualization, and personal growth. Humanists believe people are inherently good and strive to reach their full potential.

These schools represent the foundational stages in the development of psychology as a diverse and evolving scientific discipline.