CBSE Class 11 Psychology Chapter 1: What is Psychology NCERT Solutions

Solution: Behaviour in psychology refers to any response or action of an organism that can be observed and measured. It encompasses everything an organism does. Behaviours can be broadly classified into two types:

1. Overt Behaviour: These are actions that are directly observable and visible to others. Examples include speaking, running, eating, or gesturing.

2. Covert Behaviour: These are internal processes and actions that cannot be directly observed by others. They are often inferred from their products or outcomes. Examples include thinking, feeling emotions like happiness or sadness, remembering, or problem-solving.

For instance, a person running to catch a train is an example of overt behaviour because it is directly visible. Conversely, the process of recalling a memory or solving a complex mathematical problem involves covert behaviour, as the mental operations themselves are not directly seen but are inferred from the person's actions or answers.

Solution: Scientific psychology and popular notions about psychology differ significantly in their methodology, basis, and reliability.

Scientific Psychology:

• Empirical Basis: It is based on systematic observation, experimentation, and the collection of objective data.
• Scientific Method: It follows the scientific method, involving hypothesis formulation, testing, analysis, and drawing conclusions.
• Objectivity: It strives for objectivity, minimizing personal biases and subjective interpretations.
• Prediction: It aims to identify patterns in behaviour that allow for prediction of future actions under specific conditions.
• Verifiability: Findings are subject to verification and replication by other researchers.

Popular Notions (Common Sense):

• Hindsight Bias: Often based on common sense, which relies on hindsight – explaining events after they have occurred ('I knew it all along').
• Subjectivity: Can be subjective, influenced by personal beliefs, anecdotes, and cultural biases.
• Lack of Systematic Study: Does not typically involve rigorous, systematic investigation or controlled experiments.
• Unreliable Predictions: Predictions based on common sense are often unreliable and may not hold true when tested scientifically.

An example illustrating this difference is how to help children facing difficulties. Common sense might suggest giving them only easy problems to boost confidence. However, research by Carol Dweck shows that children who only face easy tasks and always succeed may give up faster when faced with challenges. Children who experience and learn to cope with both success and failure, and are taught to exert more effort, tend to perform better in the long run. This demonstrates that empirical findings in scientific psychology provide more reliable insights than common sense assumptions.

Solution: Psychology, as a formal scientific discipline, has a relatively short history but its roots trace back to ancient philosophy. Its evolution can be understood through several key phases and schools of thought:

1. Structuralism:

Proposed by Wilhelm Wundt, this was one of the earliest schools of psychology. Structuralists aimed to analyze the structure of the human mind by breaking down conscious experience into its basic components or 'elements'. They primarily used the method of introspection, where individuals reported their own conscious experiences, to study mental processes.

2. Functionalism:

Developed by William James, this school shifted the focus from the structure of the mind to its functions. Functionalists were interested in understanding what the mind does and how consciousness helps individuals adapt to their environment. They viewed consciousness as a continuous stream ('stream of consciousness') and believed it could not be effectively broken down into parts. They also employed introspection.

3. Behaviorism:

Founded by John B. Watson, Behaviorism proposed that psychology should be the science of observable behaviour. Watson argued that mental concepts like consciousness were unscientific and immeasurable. He emphasized the study of behaviour in terms of observable stimuli (S) and responses (R), influenced by Pavlov's work on classical conditioning. The focus was on learning and how environmental factors shape behaviour.

4. Gestalt Psychology:

Emerging in Germany as a reaction against Structuralism, Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka) emphasized that our perceptual experience is more than just the sum of its individual sensory components. It focuses on how we organize our perceptions into meaningful wholes. For example, we perceive a table as a single object, not just as separate parts like legs and a surface.

5. Psychoanalysis:

Pioneered by Sigmund Freud, this approach suggested that human behaviour is largely driven by unconscious desires, conflicts, and motives that individuals are often unaware of. Freud developed psychoanalysis as a therapeutic technique to explore these unconscious elements and treat psychological disorders.

6. Humanism:

Advocated by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, Humanistic psychology emerged as a reaction against the deterministic views of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It emphasizes the unique potential of human beings, focusing on concepts like free will, self-actualization, personal growth, and the subjective experience of individuals.