CBSE Class 12 Sociology NCERT Solutions: Change and Development in Industrial Society

Solution: Let's consider the occupation of a factory worker in the organized industrial sector, particularly in light of post-1990s liberalization policies that encouraged private and foreign investment.

(a) Social Composition of the Work Force: In contemporary industrial settings, the workforce is generally diverse. People from various castes, both men and women, and across a wide age range (typically from 15 to 60 years) are employed. However, the distribution can vary; some regions of the country have a higher concentration of industries, attracting workers from those areas. While efforts are made towards inclusivity, historical social structures can still subtly influence recruitment and workplace dynamics.

(b) Labour Process: Recruitment in the industrial sector has evolved. While direct hiring through advertisements or employment exchanges is common, historically, jobbers or contractors played a crucial role. These intermediaries, often from the same community as the workers, acted as a link between owners and labor. In some cases, like the Kanpur textile mills, 'mistris' (jobbers) held significant influence. Nowadays, management and unions also play a more direct role in recruitment. A significant aspect is the prevalence of 'badli' workers, who substitute for regular employees on leave, sometimes working for years without permanent status. This system is closely related to contract work in the organized sector.

(c) Wages and Other Benefits: Workers in the organized sector typically receive salaries or wages based on their qualifications, experience, age, and the nature of the job. Contract laborers receive a fixed amount as per their agreement. Compared to the unorganized sector, the organized sector generally offers better pay, along with benefits such as House Rent Allowance (HRA), medical facilities, and overtime pay for extra hours worked.

(d) Working Conditions: The government has enacted regulations, such as the Mines Act of 1952, to govern working hours, ensure safety, and mandate overtime pay. While larger companies tend to adhere to these rules, smaller mines and quarries may not always comply. Workers in underground mines face particularly hazardous conditions, including risks of flooding, fire, roof collapses, gas emissions, and ventilation failures, which can lead to serious health issues like tuberculosis and silicosis. Safety measures and rest times are crucial but can be inconsistent, especially in less regulated environments or when sub-contracting is widespread.

Solution: Social institutions like caste, kinship, networks, gender, and region significantly influence how work is organized and products are marketed in various occupations, including brick making, bidi rolling, software engineering, and mining.

Social Composition: While specific details vary, generally, industrial and service sectors employ people from diverse backgrounds. For instance, in sectors like nursing or teaching, women often form a larger proportion of the workforce compared to men. In contrast, historically male-dominated fields might show different gender compositions. Over 90% of work in India occurs in the unorganized or informal sector, often characterized by small-scale workplaces where individuals may interact primarily with people from similar backgrounds or regions. The primary sector (agriculture, mining) still employs a large percentage, though the service sector is growing and employing more people, contributing to a growing urban middle class with associated values.

Working Conditions and Facilities: Working conditions differ vastly. In sectors like software engineering (part of the tertiary sector), employees often work in secure jobs with regular salaries, though the rise of contract labor is increasing insecurity even here. Government employment, once a major avenue for well-being, has seen a decline. In contrast, occupations like mining involve extremely hazardous conditions, including risks of flooding, fire, roof collapses, gas emissions, and long-term health problems like tuberculosis and silicosis. Bidi rolling, often done in factories, involves sitting for long hours, but offers a social environment.

Girls like Madhu's Feelings: Girls like Madhu, engaged in bidi rolling, often find a sense of community and social interaction in their work. They enjoy the opportunity to sit close to family members and other women, listening to their conversations while they work. Although it constitutes most of their time, the social aspect of working together in the bidi factory provides a positive element to their experience.