CBSE Class 12 Sociology Chapter 7: Cultural Change NCERT Solutions

Sanskritisation is a significant concept introduced by sociologist M.N. Srinivas. It describes the process through which lower castes or other social groups adopt the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a higher caste, particularly a 'twice-born' (dwija) caste, in an effort to improve their social standing within the caste hierarchy.

The influence of Sanskritisation is observable across various aspects of culture, including language, literature, music, dance, drama, and overall lifestyle. While primarily a phenomenon within the Hindu social system, Srinivas noted its visibility in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism as well.

The operation of Sanskritisation varied regionally. In areas dominated by a highly Sanskritised caste, the entire region might experience a degree of Sanskritisation. Conversely, where non-Sanskritic castes held dominance, their influence was stronger, a process Srinivas termed 'de-Sanskritisation'.

Srinivas argued that Sanskritisation typically occurs when a group experiences an improvement in its economic or political position, or develops a heightened group consciousness due to contact with elements of the 'Great Tradition' of Hinduism, such as pilgrimage centres or monasteries. However, traditional social structures in India presented obstacles, with dominant castes often resisting attempts by lower castes to emulate them.

The aspiration for Sanskritisation is often linked to increased wealth, where a group seeks to emulate the customs of a culturally superior group, usually one that is also financially better off. This emulation is driven by a desire for upward social mobility.

Criticisms of Sanskritisation:

• Exaggeration of Social Mobility: Critics argue that Sanskritisation overstates the extent to which lower castes can move up the social ladder. It often leads to 'positional changes' for individuals rather than 'structural changes' in the caste system, meaning the overall system of inequality persists.
• Acceptance of Inequality: The ideology of Sanskritisation inherently accepts the ways of upper castes as superior and those of lower castes as inferior. This normalizes the desire to imitate the upper castes and can perpetuate discriminatory ideas.
• Justification of Discrimination: Sanskritisation can be seen as justifying a social model based on inequality and exclusion. It implicitly accepts notions of ritual purity and pollution, allowing groups to look down upon others, mirroring the very discrimination they might have faced. Instead of striving for an egalitarian society, it can lead to a redefinition of an excluded status within an undemocratic framework.
• Adoption of Negative Practices: As lower castes adopt upper-caste rites and rituals, they may also adopt practices like the seclusion of women, the dowry system (instead of bride-price), and caste-based discrimination against even lower groups.
• Erosion of Dalit Culture: This process can erode the distinct cultural identity and social practices of Dalit communities. For instance, the value and dignity associated with manual labour, often a source of identity for lower castes, can be degraded and rendered shameful.

M.N. Srinivas defined Westernisation as the profound changes that occurred in Indian society and culture due to over 150 years of British rule. This term encompasses changes at multiple levels, including technology, institutions, ideology, and values.

Westernisation manifests in various ways:

• Emergence of a Sub-culture: A minority of Indians who first encountered Western culture developed a distinct sub-cultural pattern. This included adopting Western cognitive patterns (ways of thinking) and lifestyles, and advocating for their wider adoption.
• General Spread of Traits: There has been a widespread adoption of Western cultural elements such as new technologies, Western clothing styles, changes in food habits, and broader shifts in social practices.

While Westernisation often involves imitating external cultural forms, it does not automatically imply the adoption of modern values like democracy and equality. For example, the influence of the West is visible in Indian art and literature. A painting of the Krishna Menon family, though depicting an Indian subject, might reflect the modern Western nuclear family structure (mother, father, children) rather than traditional Indian family models.

Srinivas suggested that while lower castes sought Sanskritisation, upper castes aimed for Westernisation. However, this is a broad generalization. For instance, the Thiyyas in Kerala, not considered an upper caste, actively pursued Westernisation. Elite Thiyyas embraced British culture as a path to a more cosmopolitan life and as a critique of the caste system. Furthermore, Western education opened up new opportunities for various social groups.

Modernisation:

Modernisation is a distinct concept that assumes a shift away from traditional social structures and values. Its key characteristics include:

• A move from local ties and parochial perspectives towards universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes.
• The precedence of utility, calculation, and science over emotions, the sacred, and the non-rational.
• The individual, rather than the group, being the primary unit of society and politics.
• Associations based on choice rather than birth.
• An attitude oriented towards mastery over the material and human environment, rather than fatalism.
• Identity being chosen and achieved, rather than ascribed and affirmed by birth or social position.
• The separation of work from family, residence, and community, often within bureaucratic organizations.

In essence, while Westernisation can be seen as one historical pathway that influenced India, leading to the adoption of certain external forms and practices, Modernisation represents a broader set of transformations towards rationality, secularism, and individualism that may or may not be exclusively tied to Western influence.