CBSE Class 9 Social Science: Pastoralists in the Modern World NCERT Solutions

Nomadic tribes were compelled to move from one place to another due to several reasons related to their livelihood and the availability of resources:

• Lack of Regular Fodder: Nomadic pastoralists did not own permanent fields. Their primary need was to find adequate fodder for their cattle, which meant they had to move to areas where grazing land was available seasonally.
• Seasonal Migration: For instance, pastoralists in the Himalayas moved between the low hills and high mountains. From September to April, they stayed in the low hills where dry scrub forests provided pasture. As summer arrived, the snow melted, and the hillsides became lush with new grasses, prompting them to move their herds northward to higher altitudes for summer grazing. With the onset of winter, they would again move downwards as the high mountains became snow-covered and fodder became scarce.

The continuous movement of these nomadic pastoralists offered significant advantages to the environment:

• Natural Restoration of Vegetation: Their shifting from one area to another allowed the grazing grounds sufficient time to recover and regenerate naturally.
• Sustainable Pasture Use: By moving between high mountains and lower hills, they ensured that different areas were used for grazing at different times, preventing overgrazing and maintaining the quality and health of the pastures.
• Biodiversity Support: This rotational grazing supported a variety of grasses and vegetation, contributing to the overall ecological balance.

The colonial government in India introduced various laws to assert control, increase revenue, and exploit resources, which significantly impacted the lives of pastoralists:

(i) Waste Land rules

Reasons for the law: Colonial rulers considered all uncultivated lands, including common grazing lands, as 'waste lands' because they did not generate revenue for the government. They believed these lands could be converted into cultivated farmland to produce crops like jute, cotton, and wheat, thereby increasing land revenue and agricultural output.

Impact on pastoralists: These rules were detrimental to pastoralists. The expansion of cultivated land directly led to a reduction in the available pastures. This loss of grazing land threatened their traditional livelihood, as they had fewer areas to graze their cattle.

(ii) Forest Acts

Reasons for the law: Forest Acts were enacted primarily to protect and conserve forests, especially for their valuable timber resources, which were of great commercial importance to the British. The aim was to manage and exploit forest resources for the benefit of the colonial administration.

Impact on pastoralists: These acts severely restricted the pastoralists' access to forests. Many forests that previously provided essential forage for their cattle were now declared protected or reserved, and pastoralists were prevented from entering them. They were issued permits that strictly monitored their entry and exit, specifying the number of days and hours they could spend in the forests, thus limiting their traditional grazing practices.

(iii) Criminal Tribes Act

Reasons for the law: The British government viewed nomadic and semi-nomadic communities with suspicion and disregard. Their constant movement made them difficult to track, control, and tax compared to settled villagers. The colonial administration perceived this mobility as a sign of criminality and a threat to order.

Impact on pastoralists: Enacted in 1871, the Criminal Tribes Act officially declared many of these communities as 'criminal tribes'. This forced pastoralists to live in notified settlements, from which they were not allowed to move out without a government permit. This severely curtailed their freedom of movement and disrupted their traditional nomadic lifestyle, further marginalizing them.

(iv) Grazing Tax

Reasons for the law: The colonial government imposed grazing taxes as a means to increase its revenue income. They sought to monetize the use of common grazing lands.

Impact on pastoralists: Pastoralists were required to pay a tax for every animal they grazed. Initially, the right to collect these taxes was often auctioned to contractors who would extract as much money as possible from the pastoralists to recover their investment and make a profit. Later, the government took over tax collection. This tax became a significant economic burden, and pastoralists often faced harassment from tax collectors, adding to their difficulties.

The Maasai community, a prominent pastoral group in East Africa, lost their grazing lands due to a combination of colonial policies and environmental factors:

• Colonial Boundaries: In 1885, an international boundary was drawn between British Kenya and German Tanganyika, which arbitrarily cut the Maasai's traditional grazing lands in half. This division restricted their movement and access to vital pastures.
• Reservation of Best Pastures: The colonial authorities designated the best grazing lands for white settlers' agricultural and ranching purposes. The Maasai were relegated to arid and smaller areas in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania, which were less suitable for extensive herding.
• Drought and Cattle Loss: A severe two-year drought exacerbated the problem, leading to the loss of approximately 60% of the Maasai's cattle. This weakened their economic base and their ability to sustain their traditional pastoral lifestyle.
• Expansion of Cultivation and Game Reserves: The promotion of agriculture by colonists and the establishment of game reserves further encroached upon the remaining grazing lands, adding to the Maasai's difficulties and reducing the available space for their herds.

These factors, driven by the increasing power and policies of the colonists, led to the gradual and significant loss of grazing lands for the Maasai community.

The modern world, particularly through colonial expansion and policies, imposed similar significant changes on pastoral communities in both India and East Africa, including the Maasai herders. Here are two key examples:

1. Loss of Grazing Lands due to Colonial Policies:
   • In India: Colonial rulers enacted laws like the Waste Land rules and Forest Acts. These laws led to the conversion of common grazing lands into cultivated fields for commercial crops or reserved them for timber exploitation. This reduced the area available for pastoralists to graze their cattle.
   • In East Africa (Maasai): Similarly, colonial powers in East Africa demarcated large areas as white settlements or game reserves, taking away the best grazing lands from the Maasai. The imposition of international boundaries also fragmented their traditional territories.

   In both regions, the best lands were taken over by the colonial powers or settlers, leaving pastoralists with less fertile or restricted areas for their herds.

2. Restrictions on Movement and Increased Taxation:
   • In India: The Criminal Tribes Act restricted the movement of nomadic pastoralists, forcing them into notified settlements. Furthermore, the imposition of grazing taxes increased their economic burden and subjected them to harassment by tax collectors.
   • In East Africa (Maasai): While not always through a specific 'Criminal Tribes Act' equivalent, colonial administrations imposed strict controls on Maasai movement to manage grazing resources and prevent conflicts. They also faced increased pressure and taxation, directly or indirectly, as colonial economies sought to extract resources and revenue. The loss of land also inherently restricted their traditional migratory patterns.

   Both communities experienced a loss of freedom in their traditional movements and faced new forms of economic pressure and control imposed by the colonial state.