CBSE Class 12 Sociology NCERT Solutions: Chapter 8 - Social Movements

(i) Women's Movement: The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of significant women's organizations in India, such as the Women's India Association (WIA) established in 1917, the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1926, and the National Council for Women in India (NEWI) in 1925. While these organizations initially had focused objectives, their scope gradually broadened over time.

It is a common misconception that only educated, middle-class women were involved in social movements. However, a crucial aspect of understanding women's participation is acknowledging the often-forgotten history of their involvement in struggles and revolts, particularly during the colonial period in tribal and rural areas. Women actively participated alongside men in political agitations and struggles, leading to their gradual empowerment. The mid-1970s marked the second phase of the Indian women's movement, characterized by the growth of autonomous women's movements that operated independently of political parties or their affiliated organizations.

During this phase, educated women engaged in radical politics and promoted a critical analysis of the women's movement itself. New issues gained prominence, including violence against women, the demand for including both parents' names on school forms, and legal reforms related to land rights, employment, rights against sexual harassment, and dowry. Landmark cases like the Mathura rape case (1978) and the Maya Tyagi rape case (1980), both instances of custodial rape, highlighted the urgent need for legal and social change. Consequently, it was recognized that disparities exist within women's movements due to women belonging to different classes, leading to varied needs and concerns.

(ii) Tribal Movements: Many tribal movements have historically been concentrated in the "tribal belt" of central India, encompassing regions like the Santhals, Hos, Oraons, and Mundas in Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas. A prominent example is the Jharkhand movement, which had a charismatic tribal leader, Birsa Munda, who led a significant uprising against the British. His legacy continues to inspire generations.

The introduction of Western education by Christian missionaries led to the creation of an educated middle class among tribal communities. This class developed ethnic consciousness, fostering an awareness of their distinct identity, culture, and customs. A sense of marginalization united the tribal populations of South Bihar, who identified their common adversaries as 'dikus' – migrant traders and moneylenders. The educated tribal individuals in senior government positions provided organizational and intellectual leadership, negotiating and lobbying for the creation of their own state based on issues such as land acquisition for irrigation projects, delays in survey and settlement operations, collection of loans and rents, and the nationalization of forest produce.

For the tribal communities in the Northeast (NE) region, key issues included asserting their distinct tribal identity, demanding traditional autonomy, bridging the communication gap with mainstream Indian society, and protecting their rights to maintain their social and cultural institutions while remaining connected to India. Anger also stemmed from the loss of their forest lands. Thus, tribal movements exemplify social movements that address a complex interplay of economic, cultural, and ecological concerns. While earlier many tribal regions in the NE showed separatist tendencies, contemporary movements often adopt a balanced approach, seeking autonomy within the Indian institutional framework.

The distinction between old and new social movements in India can indeed be blurred due to overlapping characteristics and evolving contexts. However, we can identify general trends and features that differentiate them:

Old Social Movements:

• Class-Based: These movements were often organized around class interests, aiming to unite people to fight for their rights.
• Anti-Colonial and Nationalist: A significant focus was on movements against colonial rule and foreign dominance, mobilizing people for liberation struggles and against foreign capital.
• Power Redistribution: They primarily concerned themselves with the struggles between the 'haves' and 'have-nots', focusing on reorganizing power relations, capturing state power, and transferring it from the powerful to the powerless. Examples include workers mobilizing against capitalists or women struggling against male domination.
• Organizational Framework: These movements typically operated under the guidance and organizational structure of political parties. For instance, the Indian National Congress led the Indian national movement, and the Communist Party of China led the Chinese Revolution. The role of political parties was central, as the poor often had no other effective means to voice their concerns.
• Focus on Inequality: They were deeply concerned with social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources.

New Social Movements:

• Broader Themes: Emerging primarily from the 1960s and 1970s onwards, these movements address not just narrow class issues but also broader, universal themes that involve diverse social groups irrespective of their class. Examples include the Civil Rights Movement led by Martin Luther King and the Black Power movement led by Malcolm X in the USA, the student protests against the Vietnam War, the women's movement, and the environmental movement.
• Quality of Life: Instead of focusing solely on the redistribution of power, new social movements are more concerned with improving the quality of life, advocating for rights such as the right to education and a clean environment.
• Civil Society and NGOs: These movements often operate outside traditional political parties, choosing to join civil society movements and form Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). They are often perceived as more efficient, less corrupt, and less autocratic than political parties.
• Globalization and International Scope: With globalization reshaping lives, cultures, and media, many new social movements have an international scope, dealing with transnational corporations and international legal arrangements.
• Identity and Culture: Essential elements include identity politics, cultural anxieties, and aspirations.

In India, the lines can blur because many movements continue to address issues of inequality and power (old movement characteristics) while also embracing broader concerns about identity, rights, and quality of life (new movement characteristics). For example, contemporary farmers' or Dalit movements might exhibit traits of both old and new social movements.