CBSE Class 12 Sociology NCERT Solutions: Part 2 - Chapter 2 Cultural Change

The term 'Sanskritisation' was introduced by the sociologist M.N. Srinivas. It describes the process through which lower castes, tribes, or other social groups adopt the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and lifestyle of a higher caste, particularly the 'twice-born' (Dwija) castes, in an effort to improve their social standing.

This process influences various aspects of culture, including language, literature, music, dance, drama, and overall lifestyle. While primarily observed within the Hindu social framework, Srinivas noted its presence in sects and religious groups outside Hinduism as well.

The operation of Sanskritisation varied regionally. In areas dominated by a highly Sanskritised caste, the entire region might experience some degree of Sanskritisation. Conversely, in regions where non-Sanskritic castes held dominance, their influence might be stronger, a process Srinivas termed 'de-Sanskritisation'.

Srinivas argued that Sanskritisation typically occurs when a group experiences an improvement in its economic or political status, or develops a heightened group consciousness due to contact with a major tradition of Hinduism, such as a pilgrimage centre or a monastery. However, traditional social structures in India presented obstacles, with dominant castes often punishing lower castes that audaciously attempted to imitate them.

Sanskritisation is driven by the aspiration to improve one's status by adopting the practices of culturally superior groups. This aspiration is often linked to economic betterment, as the 'reference model' is usually financially better off.

Criticisms of Sanskritisation:

• Exaggeration of Social Mobility: It has been criticized for overstating the extent to which lower castes can move up the social ladder. It often leads to positional changes for individuals rather than structural changes in society, meaning inequality persists even if some individuals improve their rank within the existing unequal system.
• Acceptance of Inequality: The ideology of Sanskritisation implicitly accepts the ways of upper castes as superior and those of lower castes as inferior. This normalizes the desire to imitate upper castes and can perpetuate discriminatory ideas based on notions of purity and pollution.
• Justification of Discrimination: It appears to justify a social model based on inequality and exclusion. Instead of striving for an egalitarian society, it allows excluded groups to find meaning in their status by imitating the discriminatory practices of the dominant groups, thus contributing to an undemocratic social order.
• Reinforcement of Harmful Practices: By adopting upper-caste rites and rituals, Sanskritisation can lead to the adoption of practices like the seclusion of girls and women, the prevalence of dowry instead of bride-price, and continued caste discrimination against other groups.
• Erosion of Dalit Culture: This process can erode the distinct cultural characteristics of Dalit communities. For instance, the value of manual labour, often associated with lower castes, may be degraded, and identities based on work, crafts, and artisanal skills might be rendered useless or shameful.

M.N. Srinivas defined Westernisation as the changes that occurred in Indian society and culture due to approximately 150 years of British rule. This term encompasses changes at various levels, including technology, institutions, ideology, and values.

Westernisation manifested in different ways:

• Sub-cultural Pattern: A minority of Indians who first encountered Western culture developed a distinct Westernised sub-culture. This included intellectuals who adopted not only Western ways of thinking but also Western lifestyles, contributing to its further spread.
• General Spread of Traits: There was a broader diffusion of Western cultural elements such as the adoption of new technologies, Western clothing styles, changes in food habits, and general shifts in behaviour and social practices.

While Westernisation can involve the imitation of external cultural forms like dress and lifestyle, it does not automatically imply the adoption of modern Western values such as democracy and equality. For example, the depiction of a family in a painting might reflect the Western nuclear family structure, even if the community it belongs to has different traditional family systems.

Srinivas suggested that while lower castes sought Sanskritisation, upper castes aimed for Westernisation. However, this generalization is debatable. For instance, the Thiyyas in Kerala, not considered an upper caste, made conscious efforts to Westernise. Elite Thiyyas embraced British culture as a path to a more cosmopolitan life and as a critique of the caste system. Furthermore, Western education opened up new opportunities for various social groups.

Modernisation:

Modernisation is a distinct concept characterized by a set of values and attitudes that differ from traditional ones. Key aspects of Modernisation include:

• A shift from local ties and narrow perspectives to universal commitments and cosmopolitan attitudes.
• The precedence of utility, calculation, and scientific reasoning over emotions, the sacred, and the non-rational.
• The individual, rather than the group, being considered the primary unit of society and politics.
• Associations based on choice and achievement rather than birth.
• An attitude oriented towards mastering the material and human environment, rather than fatalism.
• Identity being chosen and achieved, rather than ascribed or affirmed by birth.
• The separation of work from family, residence, and community, often within bureaucratic organizations.

In summary, while Westernisation can be a component or a pathway towards Modernisation, it is not synonymous with it. Modernisation represents a deeper transformation of societal values and structures towards rationality, individualism, and secularism, which may or may not be directly linked to the adoption of Western cultural forms.