CBSE Class 12 Sociology Chapter 9: Change and Development in Rural Society NCERT Solutions

Solution:

1. The maliks were able to leverage the power of the state to advance their interests primarily because of their strong position as a dominant caste. This dominance translated into significant political, economic, and social influence. Their ability to secure intervention from various state apparatuses allowed them to protect and promote their vested interests, effectively using state machinery to their advantage.
2. The labourers faced harsh working conditions due to a combination of factors. Firstly, they belonged to marginalized groups, often Dalits, who were historically denied land ownership. This forced them to work as laborers on the lands owned by the dominant castes. Secondly, the economic and social power of the maliks, coupled with their ability to influence state actions, meant that the laborers had little recourse against exploitative conditions and were compelled to endure difficult work environments.

Solution:

The government has undertaken several measures to protect the rights of landless agricultural laborers and migrant workers, and further steps can be taken:

Measures Taken:

• Abolition of Bonded Labour: Practices like 'Bandhua mazdoor' in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the 'Halpati System' in Gujarat, and the 'Jeeta System' in Karnataka have been legally abolished by the Government of India.
• Abolition of the Zamindari System: Legislation was passed to abolish the Zamindari system, which had intermediaries between the peasants and the state, thereby aiming to give more rights to cultivators.
• Abolition and Regulation of Tenancy: Laws were enacted to regulate tenancy, discouraging exploitative 'Batai' (sharecropping) systems. In states like West Bengal and Kerala, where left-leaning governments were in power, tenants were granted land rights.
• Imposition of Land Ceiling Act: This act sets an upper limit on the amount of land an individual can own. The objective is to identify surplus land and redistribute it among the landless. While initiatives like Binoba Bhave's Bhoodan Yojna influenced this, the act has shortcomings that need addressing.
• MANREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act): This is an effective measure providing guaranteed employment in rural areas, thereby improving the economic condition of rural households and reducing distress migration.

Measures That Should Be Taken:

• Organizing the Sector: The state should take appropriate measures to organize the entire sector of landless agricultural labor to ensure better working conditions and rights.
• Improving Rural Economic Conditions: The government should focus on improving the overall economic conditions in villages. This includes better infrastructure, creating more job opportunities within villages, and developing essential facilities like education, healthcare, and entertainment. This would help discourage migration to urban areas.
• Consolidation of Land: Implementing voluntary or compulsory consolidation of landholdings can increase agricultural efficiency by providing farmers with larger, contiguous plots instead of scattered small fields.

Solution:

The lack of upward socio-economic mobility for agricultural workers is directly linked to several factors prevalent in Indian rural society:

• Dependence on Agriculture and Landlessness: Indian rural society is heavily dependent on agriculture for livelihood. However, land is unevenly distributed, and a significant portion of the rural population is landless. This forces them into agricultural labor, which is often precarious.
• Exploitative Wages and Insecure Employment: Agricultural workers are frequently paid below the statutory minimum wages. Their employment is often on a daily wage basis, making it irregular and insecure, which hinders their ability to save and invest for upward mobility.
• Tenant's Lower Income: Tenants, who cultivate land owned by others, also face low incomes as they are required to pay a substantial portion of their produce to the landowner, leaving little for their own economic advancement.
• Patrilineal Kinship System and Property Rights: In the patrilineal kinship system prevalent in India, women are legally entitled to equal property rights. However, in practice, due to male dominance, they are often deprived of their rightful share of family property, limiting their economic independence and mobility.
• Land Ownership as a Determinant of Status: The ownership of land and the extent of landholding are primary determinants of a farmer's socio-economic position. Those without land or with very small holdings are at the bottom of the agrarian structure, facing significant barriers to upward mobility.
• Class Structure and Caste System: The agrarian society is structured through a class system that is often intertwined with the caste system. While caste may not always directly correlate with land ownership (e.g., Brahmins might be dominant but not landowners), it significantly influences social standing and access to resources, impacting mobility.