CBSE Class 12 Sociology Chapter 13: Social Movements - NCERT Solutions

(i) Women's Movement:

The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of significant women's organizations in India, such as the Women's India Association (WIA) in 1917, the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1926, and the National Council for Women in India (NEWI) in 1925. While initially focused on specific issues, their scope broadened over time.

It is a misconception that only middle-class educated women participated in social movements. Historical accounts reveal that women, including rural and tribal women, actively participated alongside men in struggles and revolts during the colonial period. This participation gradually led to their empowerment.

The mid-1970s marked the second phase of the Indian Women's Movement, characterized by the growth of autonomous women's groups that were independent of political parties. Educated women engaged in radical politics and promoted critical analysis of women's issues. New concerns like violence against women, the need for both parents' names on school forms, legal changes for land rights and employment, and combating dowry became central. Landmark cases like the Mathura rape case (1978) and Maya Tyagi rape case (1980), both instances of custodial rape, highlighted the urgency of these issues. It was also recognized that disparities exist within women's movements due to differing class backgrounds, leading to varied needs and concerns.

(ii) Tribal Movements:

Many tribal movements have been concentrated in the 'tribal belt' of central India, involving communities like the Santhals, Hos, Oraons, and Mundas in regions such as Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas. The Jharkhand movement, for instance, was significantly influenced by charismatic tribal leaders like Birsa Munda, who led major uprisings against the British. His legacy continues to inspire.

Western education provided by Christian missionaries helped create an educated middle class among tribals, fostering ethnic consciousness—an awareness of their distinct identity, culture, and customs. A sense of marginalization often united tribal populations, particularly in South Bihar, against perceived 'dikus' (migrant traders and moneylenders). Tribal individuals in government jobs provided organizational and intellectual leadership, advocating for issues like land acquisition for projects, settlement operations, loan collections, and the nationalization of forest produce.

For tribes in the Northeast, key issues included asserting their distinct tribal identity, demanding traditional autonomy, bridging communication gaps with mainstream Indian society, and protecting their social and cultural institutions while maintaining ties with India. Anger over the loss of forest lands was also a significant factor.

Tribal movements exemplify social movements encompassing economic, cultural, and ecological dimensions. While earlier movements sometimes showed tendencies towards separatism, contemporary tribal movements often seek autonomy within the Indian institutional framework, demonstrating a more balanced approach.

The distinction between old and new social movements in India is often blurred due to the evolving nature of social activism. Here's a discussion based on their characteristics:

Old Social Movements:

These movements were typically class-based, uniting people to fight for specific rights. They included anti-colonial and nationalist movements that mobilized populations against foreign rule and dominance. The primary focus was often on the struggles between the 'haves' and 'have-nots,' aiming to reconfigure power relations by transferring power from the dominant to the powerless. Examples include workers mobilizing against capitalists or women struggling against male domination. These movements usually operated under the guidance and organizational framework of political parties (e.g., the Indian National Congress leading the national movement). The role of political parties was central, as ordinary people often lacked other effective means to voice their concerns. Social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources were key concerns.

New Social Movements:

Emerging significantly from the 1960s and 1970s onwards, these movements address broader, universal themes that involve diverse social groups irrespective of their class. They are less focused on the redistribution of power and more concerned with improving the 'quality of life,' advocating for rights like education and a clean environment. Examples include the Civil Rights Movement led by Martin Luther King and the Black Power movement led by Malcolm X in the USA, as well as the women's and environmental movements globally. These movements often do not confine themselves to traditional political parties; instead, they frequently engage with civil society movements and form NGOs, perceived as more efficient and less autocratic. Globalization has also influenced new social movements, making them international in scope and focusing on identity politics, cultural anxieties, and aspirations.

Difficulty in Distinction in India:

In India, the lines blur because many movements might exhibit characteristics of both old and new forms. For instance, while tribal movements fought for land rights (an 'old' issue of resource distribution), they also emphasized cultural identity and autonomy (a 'new' issue). Similarly, the women's movement, while fighting for legal rights (old), also addresses issues of identity and quality of life (new). The strong influence of political parties in many social struggles, even contemporary ones, further complicates a clear categorization. Therefore, while the theoretical distinctions are useful, the practical reality in India often presents a more complex and overlapping picture.