CBSE Class 12 Psychology NCERT Solutions: Intelligence and Aptitude

Solution: Psychologists characterize intelligence differently from the common understanding, which often equates it with mental alertness, quick learning, and understanding. The Oxford dictionary defines intelligence as the capacity for perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing. Alfred Binet defined it as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well. Later, Wechsler provided a more comprehensive definition, describing intelligence as "the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his/her environment." Contemporary psychologists like Gardner and Sternberg emphasize that intelligent individuals not only adapt to their environment but also actively shape it. Sternberg further defines intelligence as "the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture."

Solution: The extent to which intelligence is influenced by heredity (nature) versus environment (nurture) is a long-standing debate in psychology. Research using twin studies, adoption studies, and environmental studies provides insights into this complex interplay.

Twin Studies:

• Identical twins reared together show a high correlation in intelligence scores (around 0.90), suggesting a strong genetic influence.
• Identical twins reared in different environments still show a significant correlation (around 0.72), indicating that heredity plays a substantial role even when environments differ.
• Fraternal twins reared together show a lower correlation (around 0.60) compared to identical twins.
• Siblings reared together have a correlation of about 0.50, while siblings reared apart have a correlation of about 0.25.

Adoption Studies:

• Studies conducted before the age of 6-7 years suggest that adopted children's intelligence scores are more similar to those of their biological parents, providing evidence for the role of nature.
• However, as children grow older, their intelligence scores tend to become more aligned with those of their adoptive parents, indicating the influence of the nurturing environment.

Environmental Studies:

• Evidence from environmental studies shows that children from disadvantaged backgrounds adopted into families with higher socio-economic status often exhibit an increase in their intelligence scores.
• Environmental deprivation, poor nutrition, and lack of quality schooling can lower intelligence. Conversely, good nutrition, a supportive family background, and quality education can enhance intellectual growth.

Conclusion: There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of a complex interaction between heredity and environment. Heredity provides the potential and sets a range for intellectual development, while the environment facilitates or hinders the actualization of this potential.

Solution: Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences proposes that intelligence is not a single, monolithic entity but rather comprises several distinct, independent intelligences. These intelligences work together to solve problems, and individuals possess them in varying degrees. Gardner identified eight types of intelligences:

1. Linguistic Intelligence: This involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. It is evident in writers, poets, and speakers.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: This is the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. It is associated with reasoning, numbers, and abstract thinking, prominent in scientists and mathematicians.
3. Spatial Intelligence: This refers to the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas; it involves the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations upon one's initial perceptions. It is important for sailors, pilots, sculptors, architects, and designers.
4. Musical Intelligence: This involves skills in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It is characterized by sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, melody, and tone, found in musicians and composers.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: This is the ability to use one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems or fashion products. It involves physical skills, coordination, dexterity, and grace, seen in dancers, athletes, surgeons, and craftspeople.
6. Inter-personal Intelligence: This involves the capacity to understand other people's intentions, motivations, and desires, and consequently to work effectively with others. It is crucial for teachers, politicians, salespeople, and therapists.
7. Intra-personal Intelligence: This refers to the capacity to understand oneself, to have an awareness of one's feelings, fears, and motivations, and to use this self-knowledge to regulate one's own life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders often exhibit high intra-personal intelligence.
8. Naturalistic Intelligence: This involves the expertise in recognizing and classifying the numerous plants and animals in one's environment, as well as in understanding natural objects and phenomena. Farmers, hunters, botanists, and chefs often possess this intelligence.

Gardner suggests that the prominence of each intelligence varies among individuals and is influenced by cultural context and personal experiences.