Class 12 History Chapter 5: Through the Eyes of Travellers - NCERT Solutions

The 'Kitab-ul-Hind', also known by the names 'Tarikh-ul-Hind' and 'Tahqiq-ma-ul-Hind', is a significant historical work authored by the renowned scholar Al-Biruni in 1031 CE. Written in Arabic, this comprehensive book is structured into 80 chapters, each beginning with a question and followed by a detailed description based on Sanskrit traditions. It offers profound insights into various facets of Indian life during that period, including Hindu religions and philosophy, festivals, customs, traditions, and the social, economic, and political conditions of the people.

Al-Biruni's distinctive approach involved comparing Indian culture with other civilizations, showcasing his analytical prowess. The precise and predictable geometric structure he adopted in his writing was a direct reflection of his strong mathematical orientation.

Both Ibn Battuta and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier provided invaluable accounts of their travels in India, but their perspectives and approaches differed significantly:

Ibn Battuta:

• Focus on Novelty: Ibn Battuta's writings often reflect his fascination with the new and the exotic. He described everything that impressed and excited him due to its novelty, providing vivid details of the unfamiliar cultures, people, beliefs, and values he encountered.
• Descriptive Approach: His account is rich in observations about daily life, social customs, religious practices, and the political landscape, offering a broad overview of the places he visited.

Bernier:

• Critical and Analytical: Bernier followed a more critical and analytical intellectual tradition. He not only observed but also evaluated what he saw, often comparing Indian society unfavourably with European society.
• Focus on Weaknesses: He aimed to pinpoint the perceived weaknesses of Indian society and governance, considering Mughal India to be inferior to European societies in many aspects. His work provides a more judgemental and comparative analysis.

In essence, while Ibn Battuta acted as an enthusiastic chronicler of the new, Bernier served as a critical observer and comparative analyst, each offering a unique lens through which to view 17th-century India.

Bernier's account provides a detailed picture of urban centres in 17th-century Mughal India, highlighting their characteristics and the social fabric within them.

Urban Population: Bernier noted that approximately 15% of the population lived in towns, a proportion comparable to that of Western Europe during the same period. This indicates a significant level of urbanization.

Court Towns: He described many Mughal towns as 'court towns,' meaning their existence and prosperity were heavily dependent on the presence and activities of the imperial court. These towns often flourished when the court was present and declined when the court moved elsewhere.

Importance of Cities: Bernier mentioned several major towns and cities, including Delhi, Mathura, Kashmir, Surat, Masulipatnam, and Golconda. These urban centres gained importance not just as administrative hubs but also as centres for manufacturing, trade, and religious pilgrimage.

Merchant Communities: The merchant communities, known as 'Mahajans' in western India, held considerable influence in these cities. They were organized through their own caste and occupational bodies. The head of such a community was often called 'Sheth,' and in Ahmedabad, this chief was known as the 'nagarsheth.'

Diverse Inhabitants: Besides merchants, towns were home to a variety of professionals, including musicians, architects, painters, lawyers, and calligraphers, contributing to the vibrant urban life.

Ibn Battuta's travelogue offers significant evidence regarding the practice of slavery prevalent in India during his time, particularly under the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Sources of Slaves:

• Captives of War: Many slaves were individuals forcibly captured during military campaigns and aggressions.
• Poverty-Driven Sales: Due to extreme poverty, some people resorted to selling their own children into slavery.
• Gifts: Slaves were also offered as gifts. Ibn Battuta himself mentions bringing horses, camels, and slaves as presents for the Sultan. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq also presented two hundred slaves to a religious preacher named Nasiruddin.

Roles of Slaves:

• Domestic Servants: Slaves, particularly women, served as domestic help in the households of the rich and nobles.
• Informants: The Sultan and nobles used slaves to gather information about the activities of other nobles and important events occurring within the empire. Women slaves, in particular, could inform the Sultan about their masters' activities.

Ibn Battuta notes a considerable difference in the status and roles of slaves, distinguishing between those who performed domestic duties and those who served at the court.

Jean-Baptiste Bernier was particularly struck by the practice of Sati, viewing it as a stark indicator of the differing treatment of women in Eastern societies compared to the West. Several elements of this practice drew his attention:

1. Forced Participation: Bernier observed that an alive widow was often forcibly made to sit on the funeral pyre of her husband. This suggests that the act was not always a voluntary choice driven by devotion or societal pressure alone, but sometimes involved coercion.
2. Lack of Sympathy: He noted a disturbing lack of sympathy from the onlookers towards the woman undergoing the ritual, highlighting the brutal and impersonal nature of the event.
3. Unwilling Victim: Bernier emphasized that the widow was often an unwilling victim, forced into the practice of Sati against her true desires, underscoring the tragic aspect of the ritual.

These observations led Bernier to highlight the perceived cruelty and the subordinate status of women within the societal framework he witnessed.

Al-Biruni's understanding of the Indian caste system was shaped by his scholarly approach, which involved seeking parallels in other societies and relying heavily on Sanskrit texts.

Comparative Approach: Al-Biruni attempted to explain the caste system by drawing comparisons with social divisions in other ancient societies. He noted that ancient Persian society was divided into four social categories: knights and princes; monks; fire-priests, lawyers, physicians, and astronomers; and finally, peasants and artisans. This led him to conclude that social divisions were not unique to India.

Influence of Sanskrit Texts: His description of the Indian caste system was deeply influenced by his study of Sanskrit texts. According to these texts, the social hierarchy was conceptualized as originating from the creator, Brahma:

• Brahmins: Created from the head of Brahma, considered the highest caste.
• Kshatriyas: Created from the shoulders and hands of Brahma.
• Vaishyas: Created from the thighs of Brahma.
• Shudras: Created from the feet of Brahma, forming the lowest caste.

Rejection of Pollution: Despite accepting the hierarchical structure described in the texts, Al-Biruni was critical of the notion of ritual pollution associated with the caste system. He believed in the natural principle that anything impure eventually becomes pure again, citing the sun purifying the air as an example. He found the concept of social pollution, which formed the bedrock of the caste system, difficult to reconcile with natural laws.