CBSE Class 12 History Chapter 12: Colonial Cities - Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture NCERT Solutions

A careful study of the data collected through the census provides significant insights into the patterns of urbanisation during the colonial era. Its usefulness can be examined as follows:

1. Sluggish Urbanisation: The process of urbanisation in India was relatively slow after 1800.
2. Low Urban Proportion: Throughout the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the twentieth century, the proportion of the urban population remained very low and largely stagnant.
3. Population Increase: Between 1900 and 1940, the urban population saw an increase of about 13%, while the overall population of the country increased by approximately 10% during the same period. This indicates a slightly faster growth rate in urban areas compared to the general population.
4. Demographic Details: Census data also helps in enumerating people based on age, sex, caste, religion, and occupation, providing a detailed demographic profile essential for understanding the social composition of urban centres.

Therefore, census data is a valuable tool for understanding the nuances and trends of urbanisation in colonial India.

The terms "White" and "Black" towns refer to the spatial and social segregation prevalent in colonial Indian cities, based primarily on race and perceived superiority.

White Towns: These were areas designated for the European colonizers, who were often referred to as 'white' due to their skin colour. These towns symbolized the British sense of superiority and order. They were characterized by wide roads, spacious bungalows, gardens, churches, barracks, and parade grounds, reflecting a planned and settled urban life. Emphasis was placed on cleanliness, hygiene, and public health, with advanced facilities like underground piped water supply and sewerage systems to prevent diseases.

Black Towns: These were the areas where the indigenous Indian population lived. They were often described as chaotic, unorganized, and sources of filth and disease. Epidemics like cholera and plague frequently broke out in these densely populated areas. The British implemented stringent sanitation and public health measures primarily in the 'White' areas, often neglecting or inadequately addressing the conditions in the 'Black' towns.

In essence, the distinction between 'White' and 'Black' towns represented the racial hierarchy and the unequal distribution of resources and amenities under colonial rule.

Prominent Indian merchants and traders established themselves in colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras by strategically engaging with the colonial administration and asserting their social and economic standing.

They often served as agents or middlemen for the British, facilitating trade and commerce. While living in traditionally built courtyard houses within the 'Black Town' areas, they accumulated significant wealth and acquired large tracts of land in these burgeoning cities, making substantial investments for future growth.

To enhance their prestige and impress their British rulers, these merchants engaged in conspicuous consumption. They hosted lavish parties during festival seasons and invested in building temples. These actions served to establish their supremacy and solidify their social standing within the colonial hierarchy, demonstrating their wealth and influence despite living in segregated areas.

Concerns related to defence and public health significantly influenced the urban planning and layout of Calcutta during the colonial period.

Defence: Following the sacking of a small British fort by Sirajudaula in 1756, the British, after defeating him at the Battle of Plassey, constructed a new, more robust fort, Fort William. To ensure its security, a vast open space, known as the Maidan (or garermath), was left around it. This open space served a crucial defence purpose: it prevented any obstructions to a clear line of fire from the fort against an advancing enemy army. As the British began to settle outside the fort, they built their residences along the periphery of this Maidan, integrating defence considerations into the city's expansion.

Health: Lord Wellesley, concerned about the overcrowded and unsanitary conditions in the cities, issued an administrative order in 1803 advocating for town planning to improve health. The belief that open spaces contributed to a healthier environment led to the clearing or removal of numerous bazaars, ghats, burial grounds, and tanneries. This initiative was continued by the Lottery Committee after Wellesley's departure, further shaping Calcutta's urban landscape with a focus on public health and sanitation, particularly in the areas inhabited by Europeans.

Bombay city exhibits a blend of architectural styles that reflect the adaptation of European designs to Indian conditions and the emergence of unique urban building types.

Colonial Bungalows: The British adapted the concept of the bungalow for their officials. These were typically detached houses set on extensive grounds, ensuring privacy. They featured traditional Indian elements like pitched roofs and surrounding verandas, which were highly effective in keeping the interiors cool during the hot summer months. Many of these bungalows can still be found in the city.

Chawls: Due to the city's limited space and increasing population density, a distinctive type of building emerged in Bombay: the chawl. These were multi-storied residential buildings designed to accommodate a large number of people in relatively small living spaces, reflecting the practical solutions developed for urban crowding.

While European architecture was introduced, there was also an adaptation of Indian styles and the development of new forms suited to the specific urban challenges of Bombay.

The eighteenth century witnessed significant transformations in urban centres across India, driven by political fragmentation and the rise of new economic forces.

i. Emergence of Regional Powers: Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb's death, powerful regional states emerged. The capitals of these regional kingdoms, such as Lucknow, Poona, Nagpur, and Murshidabad, gained prominence as centres of political and cultural activity. Additionally, many nobles and officials established new urban settlements, often referred to as 'qasbahs' or 'ganjs', to consolidate their power and economic influence.

ii. European Trading Companies: European trading companies, including the Portuguese (e.g., in Panaji from 1570) and the British (e.g., in Madras from 1639), established their trading bases in various parts of India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. With the expansion of commercial activities, these settlements grew into important trading centres, further contributing to the changing urban landscape.

iii. Decline of Older Centres: Concurrently, from the mid-eighteenth century onwards, established trading centres like Surat and Dhaka, which had flourished in the seventeenth century, began to decline. This was primarily due to shifts in trade routes and the growing dominance of new centres, including those controlled by European powers.

These factors collectively led to a dynamic reshaping of India's urban geography during the eighteenth century.