CBSE Class 12 History Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation NCERT Solutions

The people living in Harappan cities had access to a variety of food items, which can be broadly categorized based on their source and the groups responsible for providing them:

1. Products taken from plants: These included grains like wheat, maize, and millet, along with pulses and rice. These agricultural products were supplied by agricultural groups who cultivated the land.
2. Flesh and fish: These food sources were provided by hunter groups who engaged in hunting animals and fishing in rivers and coastal areas.

Therefore, the food available in Harappan cities was a result of the combined efforts of both agricultural communities and hunter-gatherer societies.

Archaeologists employ several methods to identify socio-economic disparities within the Harappan society:

1. Study of Burials:
   • The manner in which the dead were buried provides clues. While most dead were laid in pits, the construction of these pits varied. Some were lined with bricks, suggesting a higher status or greater resources for certain individuals.
   • The presence of grave goods, such as pottery and ornaments (like jewellery found with both men and women), indicates differences in wealth and social standing. Those buried with more or richer items likely belonged to a higher socio-economic stratum.
2. Classification of Artifacts:
   • Artifacts are broadly divided into two categories: Utilitarian and Luxurious.
     • Utilitarian objects are those of daily use, made from ordinary materials like clay or stone. Examples include querns, pottery, flesh-rubbers, and needles. These items are found widely distributed across settlements, suggesting common usage.
     • Luxurious objects are rare and crafted from precious, non-local materials using advanced and complicated technology. Small pots made of faience are cited as an example of luxury items, which were not only precious but also difficult to produce. The possession of such items points to the existence of an elite class with access to resources and specialized skills.

These methods help archaeologists infer that the Harappan society was not entirely egalitarian and exhibited variations in wealth, status, and access to resources.

Yes, the drainage system in Harappan cities is a strong indicator of sophisticated town planning. The following reasons support this agreement:

• Systematic Layout: The execution of the drainage system clearly required meticulous planning. It appears that drains were laid out first, and then houses were constructed along these planned routes. This ensured that domestic wastewater could easily flow into the street drains.
• Grid Pattern: The plans of the lower town reveal that roads and streets were laid out following an approximate grid pattern, intersecting each other at right angles. This organized layout facilitated efficient drainage and urban living.
• Integrated Planning: The settlement appears to have been planned from its inception. The city was confined to a designated area, often built on platforms, with infrastructure like drains integrated into the urban design from the beginning.
• Standardized Materials: The consistent use of standardized bricks, whether sundried or baked, across all Harappan settlements further points to a unified planning approach. These bricks typically followed a standard ratio, with length and breadth being four times and twice the height, respectively.

The coordinated effort involved in creating such a comprehensive and functional drainage network underscores the advanced level of town planning achieved by the Harappans.

Bead-making was a significant craft in the Harappan Civilisation, particularly flourishing in sites like Chanhudaro. A variety of materials were used:

Materials Used for Beads:

• Stones: Beautiful red-coloured stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, and quartz were used. Steatite was also employed.
• Metals: Copper and bronze were utilized.
• Precious Metals: Gold was also used for crafting beads.
• Other Materials: Shell, faience (a glazed ceramic material), and terracotta (burnt clay) were commonly used.

Process of Making Beads (Example: Carnelian Beads):

The process of making beads varied depending on the material, and they came in a wide range of shapes, not always strictly geometrical, especially when made from harder stones.

1. Shaping: Nodules of the chosen material, such as carnelian, were first chipped to achieve a rough shape. These rough shapes were then further flaked to achieve the final desired form.
2. Color Treatment (for Carnelian): The yellowish raw material of carnelian was subjected to firing. This process transformed its colour, yielding the characteristic red hue.
3. Finishing: The final stages involved grinding the beads to smooth them, polishing them to achieve a shine, and drilling holes to allow them to be strung. Specialized drilling techniques were employed at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira, indicating advanced craftsmanship.

The variety in materials, shapes, and the sophisticated techniques used highlight the skill and artistry of Harappan bead-makers.

Based on the typical observations from archaeological findings like the one potentially depicted in Figure 1.30, we can infer the following:

• Body Placement: The skeleton has been placed in a pit, generally oriented in a north-south direction. This specific orientation might have held cultural or cosmological significance for the Harappans.
• Objects Placed Near the Body: Many graves contain pottery, often including jars. These might have been placed to hold food, water, or other essentials for the deceased in the afterlife.
• Artefacts on the Body: Yes, it is common to find artefacts directly on the body. Jewellery, such as bangles, necklaces, and earrings, has been found on skeletons of both men and women.
• Indication of Sex: The presence and type of ornaments can sometimes help indicate the sex of the skeleton. For instance, certain types of jewellery or adornments might have been more commonly associated with either males or females in Harappan society. However, it's important to note that jewellery was found on both sexes, suggesting that adornment was not exclusively gender-specific, but specific items or their quantity might offer clues.

These observations from burials provide valuable insights into Harappan beliefs about death and the afterlife, as well as social customs and status differentiation.