These NCERT notes for CBSE Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 2, Solutions, explain the fundamental concepts of solutions. A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture, with components classified as solute and solvent. The notes detail the classification of solutions based on the physical state of components and the amount of solute, including unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated solutions. Solubility and the factors affecting it, such as temperature and pressure, are discussed. Henry's Law, which relates the partial pressure of a gas to its mole fraction in a solution, is presented with its applications in soft drinks and diving. Various methods for expressing concentration, including percentage by weight and volume, mole fraction, ppm, molarity, molality, normality, formality, and mass fraction, are explained with their formulas. Raoult's Law for volatile liquids and the Konowaloff Rule are covered. The notes also differentiate between ideal solutions, which obey Raoult's Law, and non-ideal solutions, which exhibit positive or negative deviations. Finally, azeotropic mixtures, constant boiling point mixtures formed by non-ideal solutions, are introduced. These notes are ideal for revising key concepts for exams.
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Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in same or different physical phases. The substances forming the solution are called components of the solution. On the basis of number of components a solution of two components is called binary solution.
In a binary solution, solvent is the component which is present in large quantity while the other component is known as solute.
(A) Following types of solutions are seen on the basis of physical state of solute and solvent.
[if water is used as a solvent, the solution is called aqueous solution and if not, the solution is
called non-aqueous solution.]
(B) Depending upon the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent we have the following types of
solutions:
solution in which more solute can be dissolved without raising temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
solution in which no solute can be dissolved further at a given temperature is called a saturated solution.
solution which contains more solute than that would be necessary to saturate it at a given temperature is called a supersaturated solution.
The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent (generally
100 g) at a given temperature is termed as its solubility at that temperature.
The solubility of a solute in a liquid depends upon the following factors:
(i) Nature of the solute
(ii) Nature of the solvent
(iii) Temperature of the solution
(iv) Pressure (in case of gases)
The most commonly used form of Henry?s law states “the partial pressure (P) of the gas in
vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction (x) of the gas in the solution” and is expressed as p = KH . x
Greater the value of KH, higher the solubility of the gas. The value of KH decreases with
increase in the temperature. Thus, aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water [more
dissolved O2] rather than Warm water.
1. In manufacture of soft drinks and soda water, CO2 is passed at high pressure to increase its solubility. 2. To minimise the painful effects (bends) accompanying the decompression of deep sea divers. O2diluted with less soluble. He gas is used as breathing gas. 3. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less then that at the ground level. This leads to low concentrations of O2 in the blood of climbers which causes „anoxia?.
The concentration of a solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a solution.
On the basis of concentration of solution there are two types of solutions.
(i) Dilute solution
(ii) Concentrated solution
Various expression for the concentrations of solutions can be summarised as
(w / w %) It is defined as the amount of solute present in 100 g of
solution.
w / w % = weight of solute / weight of solution * 100
(w / V%) It is defined as the weight 01 solute present in 100 mL of
solution.
w / V % = weight of solute / weight of solution * 100
or the volume of solute present in 100 mL of solution.
u / V % = volume of solute / volume of solution * 100
(x) It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the
total number of moles of all the components. For a binary solution, if the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole fraction of A will be
(iv) Parts per million
(ppm) It is defined as the parts of a component per million parts (106) of
the solution. It is widely used when a solute is present in trace quantities.
ppm = number of parts of the component / total number of parts of all the components * 106
(v) Molarity (M) It is the number of moles of solute present in 1L(dm3) of the solution.
M = number of moles of solute / volume of solution (L)
M = mass of solute (in gram) * 1000 / mol. wt. of solute x volume of solution (in mL)
Molarity varies with temperature due to change in volume of solution.
[When molarity of a solution is 1 M, it is called a molar solution. 0.1 M solution is called a
decimolar solution while 0.5 M solution is known as semi molar solution]
Molarity = Percent by mass * density * 10 / molecular weight
Dilution law, M1 V1 = M2 V2 (for dilution from volume V1 to V2)
For reaction between two reactants, M1 V1 / n1 = M2 V2 / n2
where, n1 and n2 arc stoichiometric coefficient in balanced equation.
(vi) Molality (m) It is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of the solvent.
Molality = mass of solute in gram * 1000 / mol. wt. of solute * mass of solvent (in g)
Molality is independent of temperature.
[Whcn solvent used is water, a molar (1 M) solution is more concentrated than a molal (1 M)
solution.]
(vii) Normality (N) The number of gram equivalents of solute present in 1 L of solution.
Normality = number of grams – equivalent of solute / volume of solution in L
Number of gram-equivalents of solute = mass of solute in gram / equivalent weight
[Relationship between normality and molarity N x Eq. weight = M x mol. weight ]
If two solutions of the same solute having volumes and molarities V1, M1 and V2, M2 are
mixed, the molarity of the resulting solution is
To dilute V1 mL of a solution having molarity M1 to molarity M2 up to the final volume
V2 mL, the volume of water added is
(viii) Formality (F) It is the number of formula weights of solute present per litre of the
solution.
Formality = moles of substance added to solution / volume of solution (in L))
(ix) Mass fraction Mass fraction of any component in the solution is the mass of that
component divided by the total mass of the solution.
Molality, mole fraction and mass fraction are preferred over molarity, normality, etc., because
former involve weights which do not change with temperature.
(x) Demal (D) It represents one mole of solute present in 1L of solution at O°C.
The Raoult?s law states “For a solution of two volatile liquids, the vapour pressure of each
liquid in the solution is less than the respective vapour pressure of the pure liquids and the
equilibrium partial vapour pressure of the liquid is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
For a solution containing two liquids A and B, the partial vapour pressure of liquid A is
The proportionality constant is obtained by considering the pure liquid when ?A= 1 then k =
P°A, the vapour pressure of pure liquid, hence
At any fixed temperature, the vapour phase is always richer in the more volatile component as
compared to the solution phase. In other words, mole fraction of the more volatile component
is always greater in the vapour phase than in the solution phase.
The composition of vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined by the partial
pressure of components. If Y1 and Y2 are the
component 1 and 2 respectively in the vapour phase then. using Dalton?s law of partial
pressure,
p1 = y1 * Ptotal
p2 = y2 * Ptotal
Those solutions in which solute-solute (B-B) and solvent-solvent (A-A) interactions are almost
similar to solvent solute (A-B) interactions are called ideal solutions. These solutions satisfy
the following conditions :
(i) Solution must obey Raoult?s law, i.e.,
(ii) ?Hmix = 0 (No energy evolved or absorbed)
(iii) ?Vmix = 0 (No expansion or contraction on mixing)
Some solutions behave like nearly ideal solutions, e.g., benzene + toluene. n-hexane + nheptane,
ethyl iodide + ethyl bromide, chlorobenzene + bromobenzene.
Those solutions which shows deviation from Raoult?s law is called non-ideal solution.
For such solutions,
?Hmix ? 0
?Vmix ? 0
In such a case, the A – B interactions are
weaker than A – A or B – B interactions and the observed vapour pressure of each component
and the total vapour pressure are greater than that predicted by Raoult?s law.
For such solutions
In such a case, the A – B interactions are
stronger than A – A or B – B interactions and the observed vapour pressure of each component
and the total vapour pressure are lesser than that predicted by Raoult?s law.
A mixture of two liquids which boils at a particular temperature like a pure liquid and distils over in the same composition is known as constant boiling mixtures. These are formed by nonideal solutions.
are formed by those liquid pairs which show positive deviation from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points lower than either of the components, e.g., C2H5OH (95.57%) + H2O (4.43%)(by mass).
are formed by those liquid pain; which show negative deviation from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points higher than either of the components. e.g., H2O(20.22O%)+ HCl (79.78%] by mass.
[Colligatil1e : from Latin. = Co mean „together’; ligare means „to bind?.]
Colligative properties are those properties which depends only upon the number of solute
particles in a solution irrespective of their nature.
It is the ratio of lowering in vapour pressure to vapour pressure of pure solvent. The relative
lowering in vapour pressure of solution containing a nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole
fraction of solute in the solution.
Above expression is used to find the molecular weight of an unknown solute dissolved in a
given solvent. Where, WB and WA = mass of Solute and solvent respectively. MB and MA =
molecular weight of solute and solvent respectively.
Ostwald and Walker method is used to determine the relative lowering of vapour pressure.
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure. As the vapour pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute is
lower than that of the pure solvent, it boiling point will be higher than that of the pure solvent
as shown in figure. The increase in boiling point is known as elevation in boiling point, ?Tb
?Tb = Tb – T°b
?Tb = Kb m (where; m = molality)
Kb is molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant. Molecular mass of solute can be
calculated as
where, WB and WA = mass of solute and solvent respectively.
Kb has units of K / m or K kg mol-1, for water, Kb = 0.52 K kg mol-1
The boiling point elevation of a solution is determined by
(i) Landsberger?s method
(ii) Cottrell?s method
Freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour pressure of the solvent in its
liquid and solid phase become equal. As we know that vapour pressure of solution containing
non-volatile solute is lower than that of pure solvent, solid form gets separated out at a lower
temperature as shown in the figure.
This decrease in freezing point of a liquid is known as depression in freezing point.
Depression in freezing point (?Tf) = T°f – Tf
To find molecular mass of solute,
where, Kf is molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
Kf has units of K / m or K kg mol-1.
Ethylene glycol is usually added to water in the radiator to lower its freezing point. It is called
antifreeze solution.
[Common salt (NaCI) and anhydrous CaC12 are used to clear snow on the roads because they
depress the freezing point of water. The freezing point depression is determined by Beckmann
method or Rast method.]
Calculations of molal elevation constant (Kb) and molal depression constant (Kf)
Osmosis is the phenomenon of spontaneous flow of the solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from pure solvent to solution or from a dilute solution to
concentrated solution. It was first observed by Abbe Nollet.
Some natural semipermeable membranes are animal bladder, cell membrane etc.
CU2[Fe(CN)6]is an artificial semipermeable membrane which does not work in non-aqueous
solutions as it dissolves in them.
Osmosis may be
It is outward flow of water or solvent from a cell through semipermeable membrane.
It is inward flow of water or solvent from a cell through a semipermeable
membrane.
The hydrostatic pressure developed on the solution which just prevents the osmosis of pure
solvent into the solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
where, d = density, R = solution constant,
T = temperature, MB = molar mass of solute
Osmotic pressure can be determined by anyone of the method listed below
(i) Pfeffer?s method
(ii) Berkeley and Hartley?s method (very good method)
(iii) Morse and Frazer?s method
On the basis of osmotic pressure, -the solution can be
A solution is called hypertonic if its osmotic pressure is higher than
that of the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the fluid from the plant cell comes out and
cell shrinks, this phenomenon is called plasmolysis.
A solution is called hypotonic if its osmotic pressure is lower than that of the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
Two solutions are called isotonic if they exert the same osmotic
pressure. These solutions have same molar concentration. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is
isotonic with human RBC?s.
Two solutions are isotonic if they have the same molar concentration, e.g., if x % solution of X
is isotonic with y % solution of Y, this means molar concentration of X = Molar concentration
of Y
Osmotic pressure method is the best method for determining the molecular masses of polymers
since observed value of any other colligative property is too small to be measured with
reasonable accuracy.
When the external pressure applied on the solution is more than osmotic pressure, the solvent flows from the solution to the pure solvent, I which is called reverse osmosis. Desalination of sea water is done by reverse Osmosis.
In some cases, observed colligative properties deviate from their normal calculated values due
to association or dissociation of molecules. As we know,
Colligative property ? 1 / MB
lienee, higher and lower values of molar mass is observed in case of association and
dissociation respectively, e.g., in benzene, acetic acid gets associated, so, its observed
molecular mass is 120. Similarly KCI undergoes dissociation in aqueous solution, so its
observed molecular mass is 37.25.
These observed values are corrected by multiplying with van?t Hoff factor (i).
It is the ratio of observed value of colligative property to the calculated value of colligative
property.
i = observed value of colligative property / calculated value of colligative property
or i = normal molecular mass / observed molecular mass
or i = number of particles after association or dissociation / number of particles initially
So to correct the observed value of molar mass, van?t Hoff factor (i) must be included in
different expressions for colligative properties.
(i) If one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into n particles or molecules and ? is the
degree of dissociation then
If n molecules of a substance A associate to form An and ? is the degree of association then
van?t Hoff factor (i) > 1 for solutes undergoing dissociation and it is < 1 for solutes undergoing
association.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in the same or different physical phases. In a binary solution, the component present in a larger amount is the solvent, and the other is the solute.
Solutions can be unsaturated (more solute can dissolve), saturated (no more solute can dissolve at a given temperature), or supersaturated (contains more solute than saturation).
Henry's Law states that the partial pressure of a gas in the vapour phase is proportional to its mole fraction in the solution (p = KH. x).
Concentration can be expressed in various ways, including percentage by weight (w/w%), percentage by volume (w/V% or v/v%), mole fraction (x), parts per million (ppm), molarity (M), and molality (m).
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per litre of solution, while molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Molarity changes with temperature, but molality does not.
Ideal solutions are those that obey Raoult's Law, have no heat change upon mixing (?Hmix = 0), and no volume change upon mixing (?Vmix = 0).
An azeotropic mixture is a mixture of two liquids that boils at a constant temperature and distils over with the same composition, behaving like a pure liquid. These are formed by non-ideal solutions.
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